Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon
Francis BaconGeneral informationFrancisBacon,1stViscountofSt.Alban,KC(22January1561–9April1626)wasanEnglishphilosopher,statesman,scientist,lawyer,juristandauthor.HeservedbothasAttorneyGeneralandLordChancellorofEngland.Althoughhispoliticalcareerendedindisgrace,heremainedextremelyinfluentialthroughhisworks,especiallyasphilosophicaladvocateandpractitionerofthescientificrevolution.

Hisworksestablishedandpopularizeddeductivemethodologiesforscientificinquiry,oftencalledtheBaconianmethodorsimply,thescientificmethod.Hisdemandforaplannedprocedureofinvestigatingallthingsnaturalmarkedanewturnintherhetoricalandtheoreticalframeworkforscience,muchofwhichstillsurroundsconceptionsofpropermethodologytoday.

Baconwasknightedin1603,createdBaronVerulamin1618,andViscountStAlbanin1621;ashediedwithoutheirsbothpeeragesbecameextinctuponhisdeath.

Philosophy and works
Bacondidnotproposeanactualphilosophy,butratheramethodofdevelopingphilosophy.Hearguedthatalthoughphilosophyatthetimeusedthedeductivesyllogismtointerpretnature,thephilosophershouldinsteadproceedthroughinductivereasoningfromfacttoaxiomtolaw.Beforebeginningthisinduction,theinquireristofreehisorhermindfromcertainfalsenotionsortendencieswhichdistortthetruth.Thesearecalled\”Idols\”(idola),andareoffourkinds:

\”IdolsoftheTribe\”(idolatribus),whicharecommontotherace;
\”IdolsoftheDen\”(idolaspecus),whicharepeculiartotheindividual;
\”IdolsoftheMarketplace\”(idolafori),comingfromthemisuseoflanguage;and
\”IdolsoftheTheatre\”(idolatheatri),whichresultfromanabuseofauthority.
Theendofinductionisthediscoveryofforms,thewaysinwhichnaturalphenomenaoccur,thecausesfromwhichtheyproceed.

Derivedthroughuseofhismethods,BaconexplicatedhissomewhatfragmentaryethicalsystemintheseventhandeighthbooksofhisDeaugmentisscientiarum(1623)-wherehedistinguishedbetweendutytothecommunity,anethicalmatter,anddutytoGod,areligiousmatter.Baconclaimedthat:

Anymoralactionistheactionofthehumanwill,whichisgovernedbybeliefandspurredonbythepassions;
Goodhabitiswhataidsmenindirectingtheirwilltowardthegood;and
Nouniversalrulescanbemade,asbothsituationsandmen\’scharactersdiffer.

Regardingfaith,inDeaugmentis,hewrotethat\”themorediscordant,therefore,andincredible,thedivinemysteryis,themorehonourisshowntoGodinbelievingit,andthenobleristhevictoryoffaith.\”Hewrotein\”TheEssays:OfAtheism\”that\”alittlephilosophyinclinethman’smindtoatheism;butdepthinphilosophybringethmen’smindsabouttoreligion.\”Meanwhileintheverynextessaycalled:\”OfSuperstition\”Baconremarks-\”Atheismleavesamantosense,tophilosophy,tonaturalpiety,tolaws,toreputation:allwhichmaybeguidestoanoutwardmoralvirtue…butsuperstitiondismountsalltheseanderectethanabsolutemonarchyinthemindsofmen:thereforeatheismneverdidperturbstates;foritmakesmenwaryofthemeselves…andweseethetimesinclinedtoatheism(asthetimeofAugustusCaesar)wereciviltimes;butsuperstitionhathbeentheconfusionofmanystates,andbringethinanew\’primummobile.\’thatravishethallthespheresofgovernment.\”Itmustbenoted,however,thatBacondidmaintainhisownChristianbeliefs,ofwhichhedifferentiatedfrom\”superstition\”.Baconnotesthat“ItisbettertohavenoopinionofGodatall,thansuchanopinionasisunworthyofhim:fortheoneisunbelieftheotheriscontumely;andcertainlysuperstitionisthereproachoftheDeity.” Yetevenmorethanthis,Bacon\’sviewsofGodareapersonalmatter,ashewritesthat“TheythatdenyaGoddestroyman\’snobility;forcertainlymanisofkintothebeastsinhisbody;and,ifhebenotofkintoGodbyhisspirit,heisabaseandignoblecreature.\”

Nevertheless,BaconcontrastedthenewapproachofthedevelopmentofsciencewiththatoftheMiddleAges:

\”Menhavesoughttomakeaworldfromtheirownconceptionandtodrawfromtheirownmindsallthematerialwhichtheyemployed,butif,insteadofdoingso,theyhadconsultedexperienceandobservation,theywouldhavethefactsandnotopinionstoreasonabout,andmighthaveultimatelyarrivedattheknowledgeofthelawswhichgovernthematerialworld.\”

Bacon\’sworksincludehisEssays,aswellastheColoursofGoodandEvilandtheMeditationesSacrae,allpublishedin1597.Hisfamousaphorism,\”knowledgeispower\”,isfoundintheMeditations.HepublishedOftheProficienceandAdvancementofLearning,DivineandHumanin1605.BaconalsowroteInfelicemmemoriamElizabethae,aeulogyforthequeenwrittenin1609;andvariousphilosophicalworkswhichconstitutethefragmentaryandincompleteInstauratiomagna(GreatRenewal),themostimportantpartofwhichistheNovumOrganum(NewInstrument,published1620);inthisworkhecitesthreeworld-changinginventions:

\”Printing,gunpowderandthecompass:Thesethreehavechangedthewholefaceandstateofthingsthroughouttheworld;thefirstinliterature,thesecondinwarfare,thethirdinnavigation;whencehavefollowedinnumerablechanges,insomuchthatnoempire,nosect,nostarseemstohaveexertedgreaterpowerandinfluenceinhumanaffairsthanthesemechanicaldiscoveries.\”

PeterLinebaughandMarcusRedikerhavearguedthatBaconwasnotasidealisticashisutopianworkssuggest,ratherthathewaswhatmighttodaybeconsideredanadvocateofgenocidaleugenics.AyearpriortothereleaseofNewAtlantis,Baconpublishedanessaythatrevealsaversionofhimselfnotoftenseeninhistory.Thisessay,alesser-knownworkentitled,AnAdvertisementTouchinganHolyWar,advocatedtheeliminationofdetrimentalsocietalelementsbytheEnglishandcomparedthistotheendeavorsofHerculeswhileestablishingcivilizedsocietyinancientGreece.Hesawthe\”extirpationanddebellatingofgiants,monsters,andforeigntyrants,notonlyaslawful,butasmeritorious,evendivinehonour…\”

LaurenceLamperthasinterpretedBacon\’streatiseAnAdvertisementTouchingaHolyWarasadvocating\”spiritualwarfareagainstthespiritualrulersofEuropeancivilization.\”

Bacon\’s Utopia

Mainarticle:NewAtlantis
In1623BaconexpressedhisaspirationsandidealsinNewAtlantis.Releasedin1627,thiswashiscreationofanideallandwhere\”generosityandenlightenment,dignityandsplendor,pietyandpublicspirit\”werethecommonlyheldqualitiesoftheinhabitantsofBensalem.Inthiswork,heportrayedavisionofthefutureofhumandiscoveryandknowledge.Theplanandorganizationofhisidealcollege,\”Solomon\’sHouse\”,envisionedthemodernresearchuniversityinbothappliedandpurescience.

Baconian method

Mainarticle:Baconianmethod
TheNovumOrganumisaphilosophicalworkbyFrancisBaconpublishedin1620.ThetitleisareferencetoAristotle\’sworkOrganon,whichwashistreatiseonlogicandsyllogism.InNovumOrganum,Bacondetailedanewsystemoflogichebelievedtobesuperiortotheoldwaysofsyllogism.Inthiswork,weseethedevelopmentoftheBaconianmethod(Orscientificmethod),consistingofproceduresforisolatingtheform,natureorcauseofaphenomenon,employingthemethodofagreement,methodofdifference,andmethodofconcomitantvariationdevisedbyAvicennain1025.

List of published works

ManyofBacon\’swritingswereonlypublishedafterhisdeathin1626.

Essays(1597)
TheElementsoftheCommonLawofEngland(1597)
ADeclarationofthePractises&TreasonsAttemptedandCommittedbyRobert,lateEarlofEssexandhisComplices(1601)
TemporisPartusMasculus(TheMasculineBirthofTime;1603,unfinished)
DeInterpretationeNaturaeProoemium(1603,unfinished)
ValeriusTerminusoftheInterpretationofNature,withAnnotationsofHermesStella(1603,unfinished—published1734)
CogitationesdeNaturaRerum(ThoughtsontheNatureofThings;1604,unfinished)
CogitationesdeScientiaHumana(ThoughtsonHumanKnowledge;1604,unfinished)
FrancisBaconHisApology,inCertainImputationsConcerningthelateEarlofEssex(1604)
CertainConsiderationsTouchingtheBetterPacificationandEdificationoftheChurchofEngland(1604
TheProficienceandAdvancementofLearning(1605)
CogitataetVisa(ThoughtsandConclusions;1607)
RedargutioPhilosphiarum(TheRefutationofPhilosophies;1608,publishedposthumously)
InquisitioLegitimadeMotu(1608?,published1653)
Desapientiaveterumliber(1609)
DescriptioGlobiIntellectus(1612)
ThemaCoeli(1612,published1653)
TheChargeofSirFrancisBacon,Knight,theKing\’sAttorney-General,TouchingDuels(1614)
TheWisdomoftheAncients(1619)
DePrincipiisatqueOriginibus(1620,published1653)
NovumOrganum(1620)
TheHistoryoftheReignofKingHenrytheSeventh(1622)
HistoriaNaturalisetExperimentalis(1623)[33]
Apophthegms,NewandOld(1625)
TheTranslationofCertainPsalms(1625)
NewAtlantis(1626)
DeAugmentisScientiarium(1623)
SylvaSylvarum(1623,published1627)
Scriptainnaturalietuniversliphilisophia(pub.1653)
Baconiana,OrCertainGenuineRemainsOfSr.FrancisBacon(pub.1679)